PRIMARY COLOURS
Yellow - زرد
Saffron (zaʿfarān) - زعفران
Saffron, derived from the styles of the Crocus sativus L. plant, has a long history and is cultivated in Iran, particularly in Khorasan, a province in the northeastern part of the country. Belonging to the Iridaceae family, saffron's main chromophore is the aglycone crocetin, which is present in glycoside forms such as crocin or with other substituted glycoside patterns.
Saffron serves as a direct dye, meaning its color is soluble and requires no chemical modification. It was traditionally used without elaborate preparation, usually by soaking it in water. Additionally, saffron has demonstrated inhibitory properties when mixed with verdigris, preventing the destructive impact of copper corrosion on paper. This property likely explains why many master calligraphers and painters have recommended adding saffron to recipes involving destructive copper greens like verdigris. (Barkeshli 1999, Barkeshli & et. al. 2002, Barkeshli 2015)
The orange-red stigmas of the perennial saffron flower, once dried and soaked in water, yield a vibrant yellow hue. This natural colorant can be utilized to dye paper without the need for a mordant, making it a convenient and easy-to-use direct dye.
https://images.app.goo.gl/GuAwLtPsjAAykTn3A
Turmeric (zard-chubeh) - زردچوبه
Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), belonging to the Zingiberaceae family like saffron, is an edible spice widely used for dyeing purposes. Native to South India and Indonesia, it is cultivated in China, Southeast Asia, Iran, and India. Historically, it is one of the most famous and brightest naturally occurring yellow dyes. Nowadays, it is widely grown in hot, moist tropical climates throughout the tropics. Turmeric is a direct dye with high tinctorial strength, capable of dyeing almost any material a golden yellow. Extracted from fresh or dried rhizomes ground into powder, it turns an attractive golden yellow when cooked and boiled in slightly alkaline conditions, such as with alkaline ash. However, it is quite unstable under alkaline conditions and in the presence of light. To improve the stability of turmeric dye, acid is added to the dyebath, such as lemon juice in Iran, mango skin in India, and tamarinds in Malaysia.
https://images.app.goo.gl/jz7tHKXfL7ZjC47dA
Red (sorḵ) - سرخ
Redwood (baqam) - بقم
Different species of redwoods were historically used as sources for red dyes. The term "baqqam" for redwood, mentioned in historical recipes, is associated with various names in different sources, such as logwood, brazilwood, and sapanwood. In traditional Persian medical sources, the Arabic terms used are "baqqam" (بقم), "baqqam-asvad" (بقم اسود), and its woodchips "khashb al-baqm" (خشب البقم). Its seed, which has medical benefits, is called "cheshm-e khorous" (چشم خروس) in Persian and in Arabic "ain al-deik" (عین الدیک). In English, "baqqam" (بقم) is called logwood, peachwood, Indian dye wood, and campeachy tree, a plant from the Leguminosae family and a sub-species of Caesalpinaceae with the scientific name Haematoxylon campechianum L.
The main colorant in Caesalpinia brasilliensis, C. echinata, C. sappan, C. violacea, and Haematoxylum brasiletto is brazilin, whereas in Haematoxylum campechianum, the main colorant is haematoxylum. Brazilin and haematoxylum are converted to the darker red compounds brazilein and haematein, respectively, through oxidation. The reds obtained from the bark of the tree are not as stable as insect-based dyes (anthraquinone reds), but they were much more affordable and widely used for dyeing and medieval miniature painting.
https://images.app.goo.gl/6xQ98SHNcA9NWoxg9
Cockscomb (bostān afruz) - بستان افروز
The term "cock’s comb" (bostān afruz) is mentioned in various sources related to traditional Persian medicine. Its Persian names are reported as gol-e halwa, gol-e Yousef, and gol-e taj khorous, with the scientific name (Celosia cristata L.), a plant from the family of Amaranthaceae. It can grow up to 40–60 cm. These are annual plants of tropical origin from Africa and Asia and were introduced to Europe in the sixteenth century around 1570 C.E. In Iran, they were cultivated as an ornamental plant.
https://images.app.goo.gl/G85L7cUM2dKsiFuT9
Black Mulberry (Šāhtut) - شاه توت
Morus nigra L., also known as black mulberry, is native to Iran, South and Western Asia, as well as the Indian subcontinent, and it played an important role in traditional Persian medicine. Chemically, black mulberry contains olcancolic acid, apigenin, cyclocommunol, morusin, cyclomorusin, kuwanon C, daucosterol, ursolic acid, and α-sitosterol.
https://images.app.goo.gl/nM5LjxLvFRMjXKuA9
Mixture of redwood (baqam), cock’s comb (bostān afruz) and black mulberry (Šāhtut)
Lac (lāk) - لاک
Lac dyes were obtained from parasitic insects or from the root of plants belonging to the Rubiaceae or madder family. Lac dye is among the most stable red dyes and is based on the 1,2-dihydroxy anthraquinone chromophore. Dyes containing anthraquinone and its derivatives, also known as alizarin, are among the most resistant to light-induced fading. Well-known red dyes of animal origins that are used mostly in Persia and India are from parasite insects: lac, kermes and cochineal, based on laccaic acids, kermestic acid and carminic acid respectively. The female lac insect secretes a red resin stick-lac, from which lac dye and the shellac resin are obtained, whereas in the case of both kermes (Kermes vermilio) and cochineal (Dactylopius coccus), the red dye is obtained from the eggs of the female insect.
According to Persian historical treatises this dark-red incrustation of resin which is produced on trees by the sting of insects has to be separated from its wood. The crude material is boiled with water sometime pure and sometimes additional ingredients added such as alkali; to dissolve the colouring-matter in the water and the coloured exudation of the insect will be separated from its natural ground.
https://images.app.goo.gl/AehxpYjGNm61Ueij6
Safflower (moʿaṣfar) - گلرنگ، معصفر
Carthamus tinctorius L., also known as safflower and bastard saffron in English and gol-rang (گلرنگ) in Persian; is the plant from the family of Compositae and a sub-species of Tubuliflorae, grown in dry climates and closely resembles thistles. It was grown in Iran and Egypt as a commercial crop. The extract of safflower has been used as a dye since antiquity; its colour ranges from yellow to true pink, cherry red, incarnadine and poppy red, have always been regarded as fine and delicate dye. The colouring matter is the benzoquinone-derived chemical carthamin which is classified as a quinone-type dye. The techniques used to obtain pink and red dyes with safflower is different from all other dye process. After drying, the flowers undergo several processes before the red colour called šahāb is produced. Safflower contains two colouring components, one being yellow and water soluble and the other one being red and water insoluble.
https://images.app.goo.gl/J1mvSvqyvjEgUvfj7
Safflower Red
In historical Persian treatises, two techniques are described for extracting red safflower dye. In the first technique, the paper undergoes three baths: a mixture of safflower dye with alkaline ash, a bath with lemon juice, and a separate bath with water. In the second technique, the paper undergoes a single bath with a mixture of safflower, alkaline ash, and lemon juice.
Safflower Yellow - Red (Āl) آل
Safflower contains two colouring components: one is yellow, which is soluble in water, and the other one is red that is insoluble in water. To obtain safflower red, an acid has to be added; particularly lemon juice which precipitates the yellow alkaline solution, turning it into an insoluble red dye called šahāb. The paper dyed this way is mainly called āl and considered as the second technique mentioned in four sources.
Safflower Peach (šaftālu) Colour - شفتالو
Safflower contains two colouring components, one being yellow and water soluble and the other one being red and water insoluble. Peach colour (šaftālu), is obtained from the lesser quality of safflower which is the third extract of red safflower known as “ʿadnī”.
Safflower Straw (kāhī) colour - کاهی
Safflower contains two colouring components, one being yellow and water soluble and the other one being red and water insoluble. Straw colour (kāhī) is obtained from the yellow water soluble component of safflower known as inferior quality of safflower.
Natural/Henna (ḵod-rang, hanāʾī) خودرنگ/ حنایی
Henna is used for obtaining the natural (ḵod-rang) and henna (hanāʾī) colours as primary colours in Persian historical treatises. Henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) is a direct dye and one of the rare examples of a dye plant with an ancient history that is still widely used today. It is native to Western India and is now cultivated in most of the tropical and subtropical regions of the world such as Egypt, Iran, etc. In some countries such as India and Iran they are used for dyeing hair and making cosmetics. The leaves of henna have been used as medicine due to its antibiotic ingredients. The main component of henna is lawsone, an orange-red naphthoquinone with antiseptic properties. The plant is 3-4 m tall, with fragrant flowers and board small leaves containing Lawson, yellow orange crystals that change into red when in contact with air. The leaves of this shrub are dried and ground into a greenish powder that can be used to dye paper a beautiful orange or dark brown colour with a reddish-orange tone, and impart antiseptic properties.
Investigations have shown that henna dye, as recommended in a number of Persian historical treatises with a ratio of 1:10 henna dye extract, has a fungicidal effect on the Aspergillus flavus fungus on paper (Barkeshli & et al., 2008).
https://images.app.goo.gl/etHrFUQsFKf5Wo477
Blue (kabud) - کبود
Indigo (nil) - نیل
Indigo is one of the ancient and oldest dyes that was used for dyeing. There is a number of varieties of indigo plants that are found in the form of indoxyl glucoside, all over the world especially in tropical countries but only some of them can be used for dyeing purposes. As the name implies, indigo is a dye that originated from ancient India which was transported to the ancient Egyptians, and later by Romans and Greeks as it was highly prized. It was extracted from certain plants native to India known to modern botany as Indigofera. Species of Indigofera produce high-quality indigo, which was used in historic illumination due to its longevity and lightfastness. Indigofera tinctoria has the highest tinctorial strength and was traded to Europe from Persia via Spain, though woad (Isatis tinctoria) another species of indigo plant was grown in Europe.
Indigo, like safflower, has two colouring components, one a soluble yellow and the other a blue that is insoluble in water, with the result that once the blue colouring component has been fixed, it no longer can be removed.
Number of indigo vat techniques has been practiced in different parts of the world and variety of recipes for dyeing are recorded depending on the species and the materials to dye with indigo. There are two main general techniques for the most popular specious and richest indigo indigofera tinctorial L obtaining indigo dye and third one using indigo cakes.
The first technique is that after being picked, fresh leaves are soaked in water where during this period the extracted indicant is hydrolysed to indoxyl so the material can be dyed with. After the material is soaked in the dye-bath, it is dried in the air to oxidize the reduced indigo. To achieve dark blue shades of colour, this process is repeated several times.
The other technique is alkaline indigo vat where the extract is processed to indigo by adding lime and drying the precipitated insoluble indigo. An estimation is recorded that 3 kg of indigo powder can be obtained from 100 kg of plant material, which contains only 300-400 g of indigo.
The third technique is meant to obtain small indigo cakes mainly for the export purposes. The cut plants are placed in vats and covered with water. The mixture is stirred every day, till it forms a mud paste. The paste is then made into small cakes which are left to dry in the sun.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Indian_indigo_dye_lump.jpg
Turnsole (toḵm-e-ʿalafī-e aftāb gardeš/ḵor gardesh/āftāb gardān)
تخم علفی آفتاب گردش/ تخم خور گردش/ تخم علفی آفتاب گردان
Turnsole or folium, a blue-purple colour obtained from seeds of the plant Chrozophoria tinctoria (L.) A.Juss. (Euphorbiaceae), indigenous to Southern Europe, is an indicator dye like litmus. Turnsole is also an annual herb native to the Mediterranean region, north Africa, and central and southwestern Asia including Iran. This species can be found on dry and disturbed lands, ruderal habitats, fallows, and along the edges of cultivated fields, mostly in limestone. The plants are 10 to 40 cm tall, gray-green, and tomentous (densely covered with stellate hairs). Stems are erect and branched and leaves are alternate, rhombic to ovate, cuneate at the base, and with sinuate leaf margin. A range of colours can be obtained from turnsole, from blue to purple and red depending on the pH of the solution. and the different stages of maturity of fruits—the first pick with slightly raw gives a blue dye extract, and the second pick with more developed gives a purple extract. The turnsole fresh blue dye extract turns quickly to purple due to hydrolysis; the conversion is not reversible and accelerated by extreme pH, which is both acid and alkaline. The blue is stable only in the absence of water.
Green (sabz) - سبز
Green Verdigris (Zangārī) - زنگاری
Some minerals and pigments were used for dyeing paper such as green copper verdigris (copper acetate, zangār), orpiment (yellow arsenic sulphide, zarnīḵ), ceruse (lead or tin carbonate, sefidāb) and blue vitriol (copper sulphate, zāj-e kabud). Mostly these pigments were added to the dyes to create certain shades; however, in the case of green copper verdigris they have been used in pure form as one of the primary colours. Verdigris is a substance usually produced by treating copper or copper alloys with vinegar. Depending on the type of vinegar used and the various additives mentioned in old recipes, the resulting pigment may vary widely in colour and solubility, i. e. some show high solubility in water while others are nearly insoluble. The term verdigris or zangār refers specifically to copper acetate; however, the term verdigris was used in some cases for any green or blue corrosion product of copper. Before the rise of the chemical industry in the beginning of the twentieth century, verdigris (zangār) was used in Iran as a common green for colouring paper and for borders (ḥāšīyeh) in illuminated manuscripts. Verdigris is the only green pigment described in Persian medieval texts (Barkeshli 2013).